Building Material Decay and Salt Weathering:  A Selected Bibliography

Eric Doehne

The Getty Conservation Institute, 1200 Getty Center Drive, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA 90049-1684, USA (e-mail: edoehne@getty.edu)

The following bibliography has been drawn from a literature survey of research on salt weathering. The bibliography is divided into seven parts, each containing a limited number of articles, in order to provide a substantial introduction to the topic, as well as a convenient way to enter and use the large volume of literature on salts and building material decay. Below are the following sections:  (A) Building Material Deterioration Overviews, (B) Salt Weathering Literature Reviews, (C) Selected Experimental/Field Papers on Salt Weathering, (D) Selected Theory/Modelling Papers on Salt Weathering, E) Selected Bibliographies and (F) Special Publications on Conservation, Salts and Desalination. Within each section, the articles are arranged in reverse chronological order. 

The first section of contains overviews that provide a broad introduction to the general topic of stone weathering, conservation and building material decay, as well as useful context for research on the role of salts. A significant challenge in dealing with the voluminous, existing literature on salt weathering (Price 1996) is the ongoing need to sift through this material to create selective reviews, while keeping in mind the multidisciplinary nature of the topic. To this end, eight literature reviews on salt attack have been identified and are included here in the second section. Then, selected papers on theory/modelling, experimental and field observations are presented. Historically important papers are represented (Schaffer 1932; Mortensen 1933; Correns 1949; Arnold & Zehnder 1991), as well as lesser-known, but useful perspectives from a range of disciplines (Maliva & Siever 1988; Smith 1994). Also, recent advances in thermodynamic theory (Flatt 2002) and conservation practice (Young 1995) are included, in addition to thoughtful editorial perspectives (Price 1996; Teutonico & Fidler 1998). Finally, there are a number of special publications on salt weathering, some of which are well known and others that deserve greater attention. There are many papers that could not be included here, yet deserve such attention, and it is hoped that this bibliography may facilitate further research and synthesis. 

Building Material Deterioration Overviews

Scherer, G.W., Flatt, R. et al., 2001. Materials science research for the conservation of sculpture and monuments. Materials Research Society Bulletin, 26, 44-50.
Gauri, K. & Bandyopadhyay, J.K., 1999. Carbonate Stone:  Chemical Behavior, Durability and Conservation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 284.
Grassegger, G., 1999. Decay mechanisms of natural building stones on monuments: A review of the latest theories. In: S. Stumpp, M. Krüger & C. Große (Editors), Werkstoffe und Werkstoffprüfung im Bauwesen. Institut für Werkstoffe im Bauwesen, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, 54-81.
Baer, N.S., Fitz, S. et al. (Editors), 1998. The Conservation of Historic Brick Structures: Case Studies and Reports of Research. Donhead Publishing, Shaftesbury, United Kingdom.
Teutonico, J.-M. & Fidler, J., 1998. Time for change: An overview of building-materials research for conservation of historic structures. APT Bulletin: The Journal of Preservation Technology, 29, 45-49.
Baer, N. & Snethlage, R. (Editors), 1997. Saving our Architectural Heritage. The Conservation of Historic Stone Structures:  Report of the Dahlem Workshop, Berlin, March 3-8, 1996. Dahlem Workshop on Saving our Architectural Heritage--Conservation of Historic Stone Structures (1996 : Berlin, Germany). John Wiley & Sons, New York, 425.
Price, C.A., 1996. Stone Conservation. An Overview of Current Research. Getty Conservation Institute, J. Paul Getty Trust, 7-9.
Doehne, E. & Drever, J.L., 1994. Appendix I: Report on the impromptu discussion session on stone conservation. In: W.E. Krumbein, P. Brimblecombe, D.E. Cosgrove & S. Staniforth (Editors), Dahlem Workshop on Durability and Change: the Science, Responsibility, and Cost of Sustaining Cultural Heritage (1992: Berlin, Germany). Chichester; New York : John Wiley, c1994, London, 287-289.
Smith, B.J., 1994. Weathering processes and forms. In: A.D. Abrahams & A.J. Parsons (Editors), Geomorphology of Desert Environments. Routledge Chapman & Hall, London, 39-63.
Amoroso, G.G. & Fassina, V., 1983. Stone Decay and Conservation:  Atmospheric Pollution, Cleaning, Consolidation and Protection. Materials Science Monographs, 11. Elsevier, Amsterdam and New York, 453.
Schaffer, R.J., 1932. The Weathering of Natural Building Stones, Special Report No.18, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford.

Salt Weathering Literature Reviews

Steiger, M., 2002. Salts and Crusts. In: P. Brimblecombe (Editor), The Effects of Air Pollution on the Built Environment. Air Pollution Reviews. Imperial College Press, London.
Charola, A.E., 2000. Salts in the deterioration of porous materials:  An overview. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, 39, 327-343.
Rodriguez-Navarro, C. & Doehne, E., 1999. Salt weathering: influence of evaporation rate, supersaturation and crystallization pattern. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 24, 191-209.
Goudie, A.S. & Viles, H., 1997. Salt Weathering Hazards. John Wiley, Chichester, 241.
Duttlinger, W. & Knöfel, D., 1993. Salzkristallisation und Salzschadensmechanismen, Jahresberichte aus dem Forschungsprogramm "Steinzerfall - Steinkonservierung," Band 3 - 1991. Ein Förderprojekt des Bundesministers für Forschung und Technologie. Verlag Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 197-213.
Lewin, S.Z., 1982. The mechanism of masonry decay through crystallization. Conservation of historic stone buildings and monuments. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 120-144.
Evans, I.S., 1970. Salt crystallization and rock weathering: A review. Revue de Geomophologie Dynamique, 19, 153-177.
Iniguez Herrero, J., 1967. Alteration des calcaires et des gres utilises dans la construction. In: J. Stichelbaudt (Editor), Editions Eyrolles, Paris, 28-45.

Selected Experimental/Field Papers on Salt Weathering

Nunberg, S. & Charola, A.E., 2001. Salts in Ceramic Bodies II: Deterioration due to Minimal Changes in Relative Humidity. Internationale Zeitschrift für Bauinstandsetzen und Baudenkmalpflege = International Journal for Restoration of Buildings and Monuments, 7, 131.
Rodriguez-Navarro, C., Doehne, E. et al., 2000. How does sodium sulfate crystallize? Implications for the decay and testing of building materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 30, 1527-1534.
Boccia Paterakis, A., 1999. Those evasive salt crystals. ICOM Committee for Conservation, Triennial meeting (12th), Lyon, 29 August - 3 September 1999: Preprints. 2, 799-802.
Chatterji, S. & Thaulow, N., 1997. Unambiguous demonstration of destructive crystal growth pressure. Cement and Concrete Research, 27, 811-816.
Steiger, M., Behlen, A. et al., 1997. Seasalt in historic buildings: deposition, transport and accumulation. In: A. Moropoulou, F. Zezza, E. Kollias & I. Papacgristodoulou (Editors), Proceedings, 4th international Symposium on the Conservation of Monuments in the Mediterrean Basin. Texniko Enimeahthpio, Greece, 325-335.
Verges-Belmin, V., 1994. Pseudomorphism of gypsum after calcite, a new textural feature accounting for the marble sulphation mechanism. Atmospheric Environment, 28, 295-304.
Charola, A.E. & Weber, J., 1992. The hydration-dehydration mechanism of sodium sulphate. In: J.D. Rodrigues, F. Henriques & F.T. Jeremisas (Editors), 7th International Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, Lisbon Portugal, 15-18 June 1992, Proceedings. Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Lisbon, Portugal, 581-590.
McMahon, D.J., Sandberg, P. et al., 1992. Deterioration mechanisms of sodium sulfate. In: J.D. Rodrigues, F. Henriques & F.T. Jeremisas (Editors), 7th International Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, Lisbon Portugal, 15-18 June 1992, Proceedings. Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Lisbon, Portugal, 705-714.
Arnold, A. & Zehnder, K., 1991. Monitoring wall paintings affected by soluble salts, The Conservation of Wall Paintings. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the Courtauld Institute of Art and the Getty Conservation Institute, London, July 13-16, 1987. Getty Conservation Institute, Marina del Rey, 103-135.
Sperling, C.H.B. & Cooke, R.U., 1985. Laboratory simulation of rock weathering by salt crystallization and hydration processes in hot, arid environments. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 10, 541-55.
Buil, M., 1983. Thermodynamic and experimental study of the crystallization pressure of water-soluble salts, Werkstoffivissenschaften und Bausanierung, Internationales Symposium. Lack und Chemie, TAE, Esslingen, 373-377.

Selected Theory/Modelling Papers on Salt Weathering

Flatt, R.J., 2002. Salt damage in porous materials:  How high supersaturations are generated. Journal of Crystal Growth, in press.
Price, C.A., 2000. An expert chemical model for determining the environmental conditions needed to prevent salt damage in porous materials. European Commission Research Report 11, Protection and Conservation of European Cultural Heritage. London: Archetype Publications, 136.
Scherer, G.W., 1999. Crystallization in pores. Cement and Concrete Research, 29, 1347-1358.
Snethlage, R. & Wendler, E., 1997. Moisture Cycles and Sandstone Degradation. In: N.S. Baer & R. Snethlage (Editors), Saving our Architectural Heritage. The Conservation of Historic Stone Structures:  Report of the Dahlem Workshop, Berlin, March 3-8, 1996. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., New York, 7-24.
Maliva, R.G. & Siever, R., 1988. Diagenetic replacement controlled by force of crystallization. Geology, 16, 688-691.
Sunagawa, I., 1981. Characteristics of crystal growth in nature as seen from the morphology of mineral crystals. Bulletin Minéralogie, 104, 81-87.
Winkler, E. & Singer, P., 1972. Crystallization pressure of salts in stone and concrete. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 83, 3509-3513.
Correns, C.W., 1949. Growth and dissolution of crystals under linear pressure. Discussions of the Faraday Society, London, 5, 267-271.
Mortensen, H., 1933. Die 'Salzprengung' und ihre bedeutung für die regionalklimatisce Gliederung der Wüsten, Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. Justus Perthes, Gotha, 130-135.

Selected Bibliographies 

Hammer, I. & Tinzl, C., 1996. Bibliographie zur Salzproblematik in der Konservierung von Wandmalerei und Architekturoberfläche. In: M. Petzet (Editor), Salzschäden an Wandmalereien. Arbeithefte des Bayerischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege, München, 222.
Lewin, S.Z., 1966. Supplement: The Preservation of Natural Stone, 1839-1965, An Annotated bibliography. Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts, 6. AATA, 183-277.

Special Publications on Conservation, Salts and Desalination

Petzet, M. (Editor), 1996. Salzschäden an Wandmalereien, 78. Arbeithefte des Bayerischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege, München, 222 .
SFIIC, 1996. Les Dessalement des Matériaux Poreux. Congrès SFIIC. Section Française de l'Institut International de Conservation (SFIIC), Paris, 304.
Young, D., 1995. Rising Damp and Salt Attack, State Heritage Branch, Department of Environmental and Natural Resources; South Australia, Adelaide. 21.
Zezza, F.E. (Editor), 1996. Origin, Mechanisms and Effects of Salts on Degradation of Monuments in Marine and Continental Environments. European Commission, Research Workshop, Proceedings 25 - 27 March 1996, Bari (Italy). Protection and Conservation of European Cultural Heritage, Research Report 4. Tecnomack, Bari, 487.